Sociology Concepts

"the scientific study of society and human behavior." Sociology explores relationships. Relationships occur between individuals, between groups, and between institutions (political, economic, medical, educational, criminal justice, etc.).

Common sense is the knowledge people gain about the world through their everyday experience. Many problems arise when people try to use their common sense as a basis for understanding society at large. First, our experience is limited. We cannot possibly know everything everywhere. Second, our interpretation of our experience may be biased. Our minds play tricks on us. We are likely to see what we want to see. We are likely to look for easy explanations and we are likely to accept ideas of people that are attractive to us. Sociologists have dubbed this tendency the "halo effect."

The Sociological perspective is an approach to understanding behavior by placing behavior within its broader social context.

Understanding society from a functionalist perspective is to visualize society as a system of integrated parts where all the parts act together even though each part may be doing different things. Each part is necessary for the survival of the system. A primary purpose of all parts (institutions like police, newspapers, religion) is to encourage consensus and stability. Functionalists contend that social systems tend toward balance.

Conflict theorists see society less as a cohesive system and more as an arena of conflict, contradictions, and power struggles. Instead of people working together to further the goals of the "social system," people are seen achieving their will at the expense of others. Social change occurs as people seek shares of scarce resources. Most social institutions serve the powerful. Change occurs as people, groups, and institutions confront contradictions in objective and subjective reality. For example, ideology suggests that everyone has an equal chance at economic advancement, but very few poor people rise very far within the class structure. Violence some times results from inequality and as people compete for scarce resources.

The scope of investigation for these sociologists is very small. Interaction is generally face-to-face and addresses "every day" activity. They are interested in the way individuals and small groups act toward, respond to, and influence one another in society. This perspective is not interested in macro-institutions like the economy and nation-states.

Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted behavior. Culture is all the values, norms, and customs that a people share with one another. Culture is all of the objects and ideas found within a society. Culture is what individuals think is right and important as they interact.

Culture shock is the disorientation that people feel when they come into contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on taken-for-granted-assumptions about life.

Ethnocentrism, according to Farley (1988:16-17), refers to the tendency to view one's own culture as the norm. This is accompanied by the tendency to judge other individuals or cultures by the standards of one's culture. "Our" truths and values are so central to whom "we" are that it is difficult to accept the possibility that our culture represents only one of many. A particular culture does not represent universal "TRUTH." For example, An American who thinks citizens of another country are barbarians if they like to attend bullfights is demonstrating ethnocentrism. This is not to say that to be proud of one's heritage is inappropriate. On the contrary, a little ethnocentrism is beneficial because of its bonding effect. Ethnocentrism, then, is a double-edged sward. It is beneficial in that it assists in building group solidarity. It is a unifying force. Ethnocentrism becomes a problem when we expect others to become like us.

To accurately study unfamiliar cultures, sociologists have to be aware of culturally-based biases. Max Weber advocates the use of "value-free" Sociology. Value-free means that one should eliminate, as much as possible, bias and prejudice. Weber uses the German idea of verstehen to describe the practice of understanding unique culture from the standpoint of others. Cultural relativism is understanding a culture on it's own terms. In essence "you have to be able to stand in the other persons shoes." When you can "see" from the perspective of another, then you can understand that culture.

Norms are established rules of behavior maintained by a society are known as norms. Norms can be laws, but they also can be procedures, morals, customs or expectations. Many times position in social structures determines the definitions of norms. Folkways, mores, and taboos are particular types of norms

Folkways are norms that ordinary people follow in everyday life. Society often tolerates nonconformity with regards to folkways. They are not strictly enforced.

Mores are norms are taken more seriously. Henslin (1999:44) considers them as "essential to our core values." Henslin suggests that we generally insist on conformity when it comes to mores.

Taboos approximate super mores. Henslin (1999:44) argues that taboos are so "strongly ingrained in us that even the thought of a violation is greeted with revulsion." Examples of taboos are Incest and cannibalism.

Each culture has a general consensus of what is worth working for (ends). Values refer to that which we consider important or unimportant, desirable or undesirable, good or bad, and beautiful or ugly. They guide most of our actions. Values are long range commitments to ends that people share culturally. Values are abstract. Essentially, values describe our "moral" goals in society.