PSY 220 Final

-Oral (birth to 12-18 months)
-interest in oral gratification (sucking, eating, mouthing, biting)
-Anal (12-18 months to 3 years)
-gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society's controlls relating to toilet training
-Phallic (3 to 5-6 years)
-interest in the genitals; coming to terms with Oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same-sex parent
-Latency (5-6 to adolescence)
-sexual concerns largely unimportant
-Genital (adolescence to adulthood)
-reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships

-trust vs mistrust (birth to 12-18 months) (infancy)
-trust: feelings of trust from environmental support
-mistrust: fear and concern regarding others
-autonomy vs shame and doubt (12-18 months to 3 years) (toddlerhood)
-autonomy: self-sufficiency if exploration is encouraged
-shame and doubt: doubts about self, lack of independence
-Initiative vs guilt (3 to 5-6 years) (preschool)
-initiative: discovery of ways to initiate actions
-guilt: guilt from actions and thoughts
-industry vs inferiority (5-6 to adolescence) (middle childhood)
-industry: development of sense of competence
-inferiority: feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery
-identity vs role diffusion (adolescence)
-identity: awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed
-role diffusion: inability to identify appropriate roles in life
-intimacy vs isolation (early adulthood)
-intimacy: development of loving sexual relationships and close friendships
-isolation: fear of relationships with others
-generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood)
-generativity: sense of contribution to continuity of life
-stagnation: trivialization of one's activities
-ego-integrity vs despair (late adulthood)
-ego-integrity: sense of unity in life's accomplishments
-despair: regret over lost opportunities of life

-the approach that states behavior is motivated by inner forcees, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control
-Freud's Psychoanalytic and Erikson's Psychosocial Theories

-Freud
-suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
-Three aspects to personality:
-id: raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality (opperates on pleasure principle)
-ego: part of personality that is rational and reasonable (operates on reality principle); buffer between external world and primitive id
-superego: represents a person's conscious, incorporating distinctiosn between right and wrong
-Psychosexual development: series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure or gratification is focused on a particular biological function/body part
-fixation: behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development due to unresolved conflict
-SEE OTHER CARD FOR STAGES

-Erikson
-approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
-SEE OTHER CARD FOR STAGES

-the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
-Watson's Classical Conditioning; Skinner's Operant Conditioning; Bandura's Social-Cognitive Learning

-classical conditioning: a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that does not normally bring about that type of response
-baby Albert
-stimulus substitution: the neutral stimulus used to bring about, or be associated with, a typical response due to another stimuli
-conditioned automatic response: the typical response that occurs due to association of neutral stimulus with original stimulus

-operant conditioning: a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weaked by its association with positive or negative consequences
-reinforcement: tries to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated (can be positive or negative)
-punishment: try to decrease the probablity that a behavior is repeated
-behavior modification: a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

-Social-cognitive learning: learning by observing behavior of another person, called a model
-learning occurs through 4 steps:
-attend/perceive - must pay attention to the action
-recall - must remember what you paid attention to and the situation in which the action was used
-accurately reproduce - must translate images or descriptions of actions observed into actual behavior
-motivated to carry out behavior - must be motiviated to imitate the behavior that was observed (be placed in a similar situation in which the action was first observed)

-the approach that focuses on the process that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world
-Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development; Information Processing Model; Cognitive Neuroscience

-Stages:
-Sensorimotor (birth to 2): the initial major stage of cognitive development that is broken down into 6 substages
-simple reflexes (first month of life): the various reflexes that determine the infant's interactions with the world are the center of its cognitive life
-first habits and primary circular reactions (1-4 months): infants begin to coordinate what were separate actions into single, integrated activities
-secondary circular reactions (4-8 months): infants take major strides in shifting their cognitive horizons beyond themselves and begin actign on the outside world
-coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months): infants begin to use mroe calculated approaches to producing events, coordinating several schemes to generate a single act. They achieve object permanance
-tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months): infants dvelop deliberate variation of actions that bring desirable consequences. Rather than just repeating enjoyable activities, infants appear to carry out miniature experiments to observe the consequences
-beginnings of thought (18 months-2 years): the capacity for mental representation or symoblic thought. Only at this stage can infants imagine where objects they cannot see might be
-Preoperational stage (2-7 years): children's use of symbolic thinking grows, mental reasoning emerges, and the use of concepts increases
-not capable of operations - organized, formal, logical mental processes
-centration: the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects
-lack conservation: the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects
-lack transformation: the process in which one stat is changed into another
-egocentric thought: thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of others
animism: giving feelings to inanimate objects
-concrete operational (7-12 years): characterized by the active, and appropriate, use of logic. Applies logical operations to concrete problems
-conservation developed
-decentering: beign less egocentric and consider multiple aspects of a situation
-reversibility: the notion that transformations to a stimulus can be reversed
-formal operational (around 12 years/adolescence): the period at which people develop the ability to think abstractly
-inferential reasoning: the ability to think about things that the child has not actually experienced and to draw conclusions from its thinking

-assimilation: interpreting a new experienced based on what you already know
-accommodation: change of current ways of thinking based on new experiences
-schemes: mental framework of doing things

-criticisms:
-claim that stages are fixed and universal; discontinuous development
-underestimates children's abilities

-the model that seeks to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information
-also known as Neo-Piagetian theory

-encoding: process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable for memory
-storage: placement of material into memory
-Retrieve: process by which material in memory storage is located, brought to awareness, and used

-automatization: the degree to which an activity requires attention
-processes that require little attention occur automatically; processes that require a lot of attention are controlled

The approach that examines cognitive development through the lens of brain processes

-the theory that contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
-emphasizes free will - the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives
-Carl Rogers;Abraham Maslow

-suggests that people need positive regard, which results from an underlying wich to be loved and respected
-our self-worth is a reflection of how we think others view us