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Example of how an AA is converted to glucose (PRO --> CHO)
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Alanine --> pyruvate --> glucose
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Example of how glucose could be converted to AA (CHO--> PRO)
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Glucose --> pyruvate -> alanine
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Which part of fat can be converted to glucose
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Glycerol backbone; glycerol -->DHAP-->glucose
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General steps needed to convert glucose to fat (CHO --> Fat)
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Glucose --> 2 pyruvate (via glycolysis);pyruvate --> acetyl CoA (via PDH complex);Acetyl CoA --> malonyl CoA (via de novo lipogensis/FA synthesis);malonyl CoA --> palmitate [FA] (via de novo lipogensis/FA synthesis)
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General steps needed to convert an AA to fat (PRO--> fat)
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Alanine --> pyruvate--> acetyl CoA --> malonyl CoA --> palmitate (FA)
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General flow of how glycolysis, PDH, TCA, and ETC are linked together:
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Glycolysis take one glucose and makes two pyruvate. Pyruvate enter PDH complex to make acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle, where each turn yields 1 FADH2, 3 NADH2, 2 CO2, 1 ATP. The 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 go to the ETC, where each NADH makes 3 ATP and each FADH2 makes 2 ATP.
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How to galactose and fructose enter glycolysis?
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Fructose enters as DHAP (dihydroxyacetone phosphate); galactose enters as glucose-6-phosphate
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How do glycogen synthesis and glycogen breakdown connect to glycolysis?
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Glycogen synthesis: glycogen is converted to G-1-P to G-6-P where it can enter into glycolysis; glycogen breakdown: G-6-P from glycolysis is converted to G-1-P to UDP glucose to glycogen.
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Substrates for gluconeogenesis? Why can't acetyl-CoA be converted to glucose?
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Pyruvate, lactate, odd chain fatty acids, glycerol, glucogenic AA's; Acetyl-CoA can't be converted to glucose because pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction in PDH complex is irreversible. Alcohol and even chain fatty acids also can't be used as substrates
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What are the fates of acetyl-CoA
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Ketone bodies, FA (lipogenesis), cholesterol/steroids, energy (via TCA)
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Overall, what happens in the TCA cycle? What goes in and what comes out?
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1 acetyl-CoA enters cycle and each turn produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 2 CO2, and 1 ATP
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Possible fates of CO2 produced from the TCA cycle
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Used for carboxylation reactions (i.e. FA synthesis and gluconeogenesis) and other C needs (i.e. urea synthesis)
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What common intermediates in the TCA cycle connect to Fat/CHO/Pro metabolism?
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Fat metabolism: citrate for lipogenesisCHO metabolism: OAA to glucose (via gluconeogenesis)PRO metabolism: OAA transaminated to Asp
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General flow of fat metabolism (how are b-oxidation, TCA, and ETC linked)
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Fatty acid chopped up 2-Cs at a time as acetyl-CoA via b-oxidation; For each b-oxidation, yield 1 acetyl-CoA, 1 FADH2, 1 NADH. Acetyl CoA goes to TCA to make 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP. NADH and FADH2 go to ETC, where each NADH makes 3 ATP and each FADH2 makes 2 ATP.
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General flow of protein metabolism (how AA are metabolized via transamination and oxidative deamination; how is the N excreted)
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The 2 N in urea come from detoxifying in urea cycle. The urea cycle obtains the two N's from AAs. The first N is obtained by AA aspartate and 2nd N is from free ammonia (from AA glutamate via transamination of glutamate to aspartate and oxidative deamination of glutamate to yield free ammonia)
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