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 Thomas Paine (1732-1809) & The American Revolution 1776 In 1774 disputes between American Colonialists and the British Government over taxes and jurisdiction reached breaking point. The country was on the verge of the American Revolution, however, no one had suggested the inevitable...independence from Britain. That is until January 1776, when Thomas Paine published an anonymous pamphlet called 'Common Sense'. Here he demonstrated how the American economy could become prosperous if detached from the UK as they was always a market for American goods. Paine also advocated the formation of a republican constitution, with the colonial assemblies being replaced by a state government under a Continental Congress. Paine was appointed secretary of Foreign Affairs Committee in the Continental Congress until his resignation in 1779. America formed the most democratic constitution ever known extended franchise to almost every adult male, so he may vote for a representative in a single chamber assembly. One of the first acts of this assembly was the abolish slavery. |
Beliefs of Thomas Paine -
- Paine believed all hereditary rule was illegitimate as hereditary succession denied the rights of future generations to choose their government. It was for this reason he denounced King George III. -Paine believed in natural equality and that all individuals had equal natural rights. A government could only be deemed as legitimate if it protected these rights, therefore, it had to be formed on the consent of the people. However, to ensure the 'dead did not rule over the living' each generation had a right to reform the constitution. -Advocated a representative democracy, with a written constitution that is updated by each generation. -As we all shared the earth, owners of natural resources owned rent to those with nothing as they are impeding upon another's share. This came in he form of an inheritance tax, paid into a fund to provide a one-off-payment to everyone on their 21st birthday to compensate for their lost natural share. -Although a believer in an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God, Paine in 'The Age of Reason' drew upon chronological and logical inconsistencies in the bible. Furthermore, after the studying the religious text in depth he refuted the depiction of God as tyrannical for it was contradictory to the beauty in nature. |
 Thomas Pain & The French Revolution - On his return to Britain Paine became involved with other revolutionary events. The Bastille, the symbol of autocratic despotism was stormed and burned to the ground, Paine supported the French Revolution and celebrated its success publicly in a campaign for parliamentarian reform in Britain. Edmund Burke, the founding father of Conservatism, although in support of the American Revolution condemned the French, as he believed by destroying the foundations of the forefathers and attempting to build a new society on rationale alone would fail. His argument was documented in 'Reflections on the Revolution in France'. 'The Rights of Man' was Thomas Pains response, the second part of which advocated the formation of a republican government and the dismantlement of the monarchy. |
Athenian Democracy -
Athenian democracy was founded in 508BC by Cleisthenes. Every Athenian born man was entitled to contribute the ruling of the country irrespective of his class, occupation and education. Although this made up a significant minority, it was only a minority as women, slaves and men who were not of Athenian decent could not contribute to political debates. Direct participation led to achievements in architecture, sculpture, science, philosophy and drama which contributed greatly to the foundations of a western civilization. The participation of 40,000 Athenian citizens was only possible due to the states immense wealth, built upon trade and the power of it's army and navy. Although it had many advocates, it also had its critics, namely Plato who saw the system not in flourishment but in demise. From 480 BC following the state's victories at Salamis, the Athenians established their own Empire which remained strong for fifty years. However, from 431BC to 404BC Athens went to war with Sparta, this was as ideological as it was pragmatic, for one represented individualism and an open society where as the other expected rigid conformity of its citizens. During battle Athenian democracy suffered moral decay and factionalism leaving it vulnerable to Plato's attacks. |
 Continuing with Athenian Democracy - The Athenian citizenry met over forty times a year to discuss policies put forward by the council of 500, individual citizens chosen by lot who acted as the executive body. The policies were created by a 500-strong committee chaired by the president a position held for a day and determined again by lot to ensure everyone had the opportunity to chair the committee once in their lifetime. |
Developmental Democracy
Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed through political participation the citizenry may develop as they are directly involved with the creation of laws which they must then adhere to. Adherence to the general will, Rousseau believed would produce a virtuous society, one which is open, accountable and decentralized. Individuals refer to this as 'grassroots' politics. Key features include; popular sovereignty with a universal franchise, constitutional checks to secure limitation and division in state power and the promotion of individual rights, citizens involvement in different branches of government from voting in a general elections to participating in local government, public debates and jury services. John Stuart Mill advocated developmental democracy, however, he believed not all political opinions were of equal worth. Consequently, he proposed a weighted voting system in which the number of votes one received would be determined by their education. Unlike his predecessor Jeremy Bentham, Mill focused his studies on diminishing pain as oppose to enhancing pleasure this led to him advocating government intervention on occasions where an individuals actions could cause harm to others. However, if it would only harm the individual, the state could not intervene. This came from Mills belief in a limited government ensured the decentralization of powers as power was given to local government, allowing communities autonomy. Localised government bodies were perfect training grounds for individuals wishing to pursue a career in politics. |
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People's Democracy
Marxist ideology present predominantly in Eastern Europe after the Second World War. Although Marxism associated democracy with capitalism, they did advocated an egalitarian state. This would be achieved through the distribution of wealth and placing the means of production into the hands of the state. Social equality was desirable for Marxists, however, political was not, for once communism had been achieved decisions would be taken by the party elite based upon the scientific tenets of Marxism and these would be submitted for discussion amongst the masses through various tiers of workers councils. People's democracy, Karl Marx believed could only be achieved through the dismantlement of capitalism. The bourgeoisie state had to be replaced with a proletariat democracy which would bring to an end classicism. There would be no need for government as the government is one classes assertion over another, instead society would be determined by the individuals who make it up, 'from each according to their ability to each according to their need'. Marx believed democracy would become redundant as society is not governed by the many but by rationality and science. However, Marxist democracy is sometimes deemed as being to close to totalitarianism, for once the proletariat gain power, power remains with the communist party and their are no methods in which to scrutinies the way in which that power is being used. Fourier, a Utopian socialist, criticized by Marx advocated arguably a truer form of people's democracy based around independent communities who produce and trade but whose wealth is equally distributed amongst its members. This may seem implausible in today's society given the population and cohesion of groups, however, less than a century ago Israeli kibbutz were being formed in which men and women were equals, both farmed the land, reared the animals and the children were assigned to a number of carers so not as to infringe upon work. |
Protective Democracy - Nightwatchman State
Liberal thinkers have identified a number of natural rights which every human being is entitled to; from Locke's 'life, liberty and property' to Thomas Jefferson's 'life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness'. Locke believed the government were created to protect the natural rights of citizens and it was this that gave them authority, however, if they failed to protect their citizens, consent would be removed and without the authority to govern. Key features of protective democracy include; sovereignty lies with the people but is vested in representatives, accountability can be achieved through the secret ballot, competition between factions, potential leaders and majority rule, separation of powers prevents the fusion of powers (Montesquieu), political and civil rights of citizens have to be enshrined within a constitution safe from the actions of an arbitrary government, the state has to remain separate from civil society and finally there has to be competing power centers and interest groups, therefore, there can never be a one part state in a protective democracy. Conditions; private ownership of the means of production, patriarchal family, competitive market economy and a politically autonomous civil society. |
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People's Democracy - The Paris Commune
The largest massacre that took place until the massacres of the Armenians by the Turks in the latter part of the nineteenth century. It estimated around 25,000 ordinary citizens were executed and their bodies burned. Before depicting the events which led to this, one first contextualize. Reign of Napoleon III, 1860s saw the revival of republican, socialist organizations and anarchist dis-organizations this was due to the ban on public meetings being lifted in 1868. Four years before strikes were once again legalized and trade unions, leading to in 1870 a wave of strikes sweeping across France. It is therefore safe to assumed the nation was politically active. In 1870 Napoleon III became engulfed in the Prussian war, Bismark viewed the fragility of France as it had no allied support. September 4th crowds stormed the town hall in Paris and proclaimed a republic, to some extent it was reflective of the town council renaming roads to assert authority. Around the same time Napoleon was captured in Sedan, on the Belgium border in north France and sent to Britain. The Prussian demanded the people's submission, however, many refuted as they would be forced to pay indemnity and let go of Alsace and Lorraine, the two most industrialized regions of France after Paris. Paris changed it's appearance as it adopted a uniform and chose to stand and fight. People from the surrounding region took shelter in the city walls and as the population grew food became a major issue. However the Center for Hygiene and Sobriety was created to encourage people to eat healthily and inform them of alternative food sources such as canines and rats. Due to the abundance of wine many sought escapism through mass consumption other through sensual pleasure which led to an increase in venereal disease. |
 The Paris Commune - Part II The people needed an ideal in which to put their energies towards, thus, the Paris Commune was formed, symbolized by the red flag, a color prohibited in France. In 1871, a provisional government was formed as France surrendered.Troops moved into Paris through the West gate which had been left open, upon seeing them the women called the men who captured two of the soldiers and executed them. The people inside the walls of Paris believed they had found a means of escapism, however, the troops from the outside multiplied in number and soon the city was under the control of the provision government. Due to women's liberation flourishing within the short period of the Paris Commune they were first to be taken out and shot. Then the officers moved to areas which were renowned for their radicalized views, it reached a point where individuals were stripped search for gunpowder residue or bruises from a backfire of a firearm. Anyone in Paris, any one left was guilty. Although the Paris Commune lasted only two months from March 1871 to May 1871 it left a profound impression. Hailed by Marx and Lenin who believed it to encapsulate proletariat uprising except these individuals were ordinary citizens craftsman not manual workers. |
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Liberal Democracy
Key features; constitutional government, guaranteed civil liberties and individual rights, checks and balances, free, fair and regular elections, universal suffrage, political pluralism (competition between political parties) civil society independent of government, capitalist economy organized along market lines. The Liberal aspects are the variety of devices put in place to constrain the power of the government, thus safeguarding individual liberty. Constitutions, namely the US clearly indicate the power of the executive, legislature and judiciary, preventing a fusion of power. Checks and balances are also put in place for example in the UK the priority of the legislature is to scrutinize government proposals to ensure they are acting in the best interest of the people. The Democratic aspects include universal suffrage and political equality. Elections are expected to be free, fair and regular. The two became entwined gradually, if we take the US as an example, the American constitution a product of the American Revolution arguably set out to defend the individual by limiting the power of government. However, universal suffrage was not secured until the 1965 Voting Rights Act guaranteed the vote for African Americans. |
Liberal concerns about Democracy
James Madison believe democracies were unjust and intolerant. The masses would happily persecute a minority if the former benefit as was the case with Marxism, the proletariat took property away from the bourgeoisie when arguably it was not theirs to take. There was also the fear of the masses falling subject to charismatic leaders who disguise their egotistical aims with the 'nations interests'. Madison also believed the system was unstable as it relied on the desires of the masses which were often fueled by emotion as oppose to reason and therefore did not make for strong foundations. He concluded that democracy was 'incompatible with personal security or the rights of property'. Alexis de Tocqueville in his work 'Democracy in America' put forward his belief that the electorate were now viewing government as instrument for solving individual conflict, this reliance led to the government venturing into civil society. This could in turn lead to the prevention of individual liberty. Henry Sidgwick in 'Elements of Politics' argued that a democratic government could 'interfere with the free action of individuals more than an absolute monarch'. The monarch represents one man whereas democracy represents the majority of men, therefore, it wields more power. Consequently, some liberals advocate a benevolent dictator who respects individual rights to a democracy in which rights are eroded by the power of the majority. Neo-roman political thinkers refute this claim as they believed freedom will be dependent on the whim of a dictator who may change was presented with power, however, in a democracy citizens are independent as they govern themselves. |
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Liberal Advocates of Democracy
John Locke believed popular sovereignty vested in the interest of representatives could counter a corrupt executive, the individuals in government have to act in the nation's interest no their own, therefore, individual freedom is safeguarded. In order to make governments act for the good of the majority Bentham and James Mill suggested extending the franchise. Through voting the electorate could oust tyrannical governments. John Stuart Mill believed democracy could help individuals grow 'in intellect, in virtue and in practical activity and efficiency.He argued that universal suffrage would give everybody an interest in politics which would in turn encourage people to take an active role in government. Mill introduced plural voting to provide an incentive for people to improve themselves and protect the individual from mob rule. |
Compare and Contrast Representative and Direct
To a certain extent both require the participation of citizen. In representative democracy free, fair and regular elections are held in which the citizenry give a political party a mandate to govern. The social contract (Hobbes, Locke) could also be drawn upon in relation to consent. The role of the citizen differs in representative democracy to participatory. In the latter the citizen is an active agent in self legislation and a real stakeholder in governance. Conversely in the former the citizen is a passive client of the government, a watchdog and a periodic elector. Robert Michell (elitist) argued under a representative democracy, liberty can be said to dissapear with the ballot when dropped into the box. In determining the differences between the two one first must contextualize. Direct democracy was designed for small scale societies; towns, poleis, principalities and city states of a kind found in Ancient Greece, early modern Europe and pre-revolutionary America. As these cities transformed into republics, larger states and empires participation of ordinary citizen became impractical. A large scale demographic could no longer meet to discuss policies in an assembly and due to the complexity and fragmentation of homogeneity of culture and religion competing interests began to flourish as society split into a series of groups. Therefore, even if the participants could meet, reaching conclusions would be incredibly difficult due to the diversities of beliefs, living conditions and interests. Time became another issue for due to Ancient Athens being an incredibly wealthy state with slaves and women performing the bulk of the work Athenian male citizens were able to dedicate the majority of their time to politics, with the assemblies meeting over forty times a year. Such is not possible in the modern world and due to the triumph of liberal democracy and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights every human being is entitled to life and liberty making slavery abhorrent. Many philosopher, however, continued to refute representative democracy as Immanuel Kant stated autonomy demands self-legislation, and hence only those who govern themselves directly can be said to be free. |
 Plato's Criticism of Athenian Democracy - Only a very select few in any community are fit to govern the city state -The tyranny of the majority. In 399BC Socrates, Plato's teacher, was sentenced to death for corrupting the youth of Athens. He had the opportunity to employ an orator to speak on his behalf, however, he refuted believing the truth would stand strong. Unfortunately the opposing orator was incredibly charismatic and therefore able to manipulate the audience in favor of him. Plato after witnessing this concluded justice could never be served within Athenian democracy. -Democracy produces instability as its nature tries to satisfy the desires of all. Every new desire is pursued and no judgment made as to which are morally preferable |
Plato's Kalipolis
Plato's Republic consisted of three tiers; the guardians, the auxiliaries and the people. The two superior level require certain qualities which can be detected and nourished from birth. For the auxiliaries it is spiritedness (thymos) which provides them with the necessary courage to defend the city state. For the guardians it is wisdom which is a prerequisite for governing. The individuals who remain form the body of society, each who perform certain tasks (ergon) which best suited to their nature (physis) for example if one is skilled in carpentry they will become a carpenter or in repairing shoes, a cobbler. By acknowledging one's potential and one's weaknesses they may find their place within society, this will in turn create social harmony and an end to conflict. Plato believed justice was pursuing one's path instead of trying to infringe upon another's particularly if you are better suited to your own which on the majority of occasions is the case. Plato believed justice didn't only exist in the exterior world but the interior soul when reason controls passions. The true philosopher possesses knowledge of ultimate truths and is not mislead like the vast majority in to mistaking appearances for reality. In order to be emotion balanced the Guardians remained separate from society and lived in communities, in which they were prohibited from forming families or personal relationships which interfere with study. However, Plato did believe women posses the necessary quality of a Guardian and therefore, proposed special breeding programs so that only the very best genes could produce those of the highest rank. |
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John Locke
In his childhood he witnessed the execution of Charles I and his adulthood the abdication of James II who was forced into exile. Consequently, living through a period of civil unrest which had an impact upon his political thought. Influenced by earlier writers of his time such as Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes. Unlike the Hobbesian perspective on the state of nature, Locke believed it encapsulated perfect freedom, a life without civil authority or civil obedience. However, in his works The Second Treatise it becomes difficult to conclude whether a state of nature creates moral theory or moral right. Locke argues the right of self preservation surpasses all and if one's life is threatened they are justified in eliminating the threat. The threat was from a violent being whose nature differs from that of the state of nature which peaceful, consequently they are regarded more with beast than with man - this referred to as Locke's bestiary. The natural rights entitled to every man were; life, liberty and property. This is reminiscent of Thomas Jefferson 'life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness' leading to many political theorists coining Locke as the founding father of modern democracy. Every being instinctively pursued their self preservation, due to all of mankind being asserted above the rest of the animal kingdom no individual could assert more power than another. This explain the natural rights of life and liberty but not property. Locke described man as a 'property aquiring being'. God gives man in common the world, every man has autonomy over his labour, if he uses it industriously and rationally he will be able to acquire title and with it property, thus he is fulfilling his potential. Locke believe only individual who meet their potential through acquisition of property could politically participate. |
 John Locke vs Robert Filmer Robert Filmer's 'Patriarcha' united political power with paternal, as God asserted Adam, the first male, above all other beings. He was to adopt a paternal role as to were his descendants, the monarchy and govern the rest of humanity. However, Locke refuted this as he believed mankind was designed 'to be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth and subdue it and have dominion over every living thing that moveth upon Earth". Humanity, therefore, were assigned a paternal role not one succession. Political power, did not reside with the monarch but the people as they gave their consent to be govern on the basis their natural rights would be protected. If the governing force became tyrannical and threatened such rights, consent would be withdrawn and with it the authority to govern. Constitution, the separation of powers and checks/ balances ensured individuals in government remained accountable to the public. |
 Pluralist Perspective Theorists; John Locke, Montesquieu, James Madison and Robert Dahl. Democracy is based on a system of competitive elections fought by a number of different parties. It operates through organised groups that try to articulate popular demand and influence government. Pluralist democracy aims to have the widest possible spread of political powers amongst a number of groups. The leaders of which, have to be responsive to their members. The state for Pluralist is a neutral arbiter that ensures many groups have the opportunity to influence government actions if it represents a significant part of the population that would suffer directly as a result of these actions. |
 Corporatist Perspective Democracy is based upon a tripartite system, consisting of state officials, employers' groups and trade unions. Their form of representation is through memberships as appose to competitive elections. Edward Heath's government in the early 1970's operated under a tripartite system. Many believe it is an undemocratic model as the government can choose which groups they will communicate with, often those with economic influence have a stronger chance, leaving others on the outside even if they have significant public support. There are also few systems in place to guarantee the discussions held and the conclusions made are in the interests of the nation rather than the few. |
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Marxist Perspective -
Draw to light the friction that exist within liberal democracies between capitalism and democracy. The latter creates political equality whilst the former, social inequality. Antoni Gramsci referred to the means by which the bourgeoisie were able to control the masses, as hegemony, the manufacturing of legitimacy. Marxist do not believe political equality is attainable within a hierarchy and the ruling class will always pursue their own interests and only make concessions to other groups in order to stabilize the economy and assert control. However, the government do not practice naked power, but that which is granted legitimacy by consent. Marxists believe as the people become more dependent upon the state the government will have to increase their public spending which in turn would fuel inflation and produce higher taxes, a disincentive for businesses. The balance between ensuring the stability of capitalism and the survival of democracy would eventually fall into disequilibrium, referred to by Jurgen Habermas as a 'crisis of legitimation'. |
Elitist Perspective
Theorists; Pareto, Mosca and Michels. It was the belief of classical elitists that democracy was a smokescreen for oligarchic rule. Although this is still advocated by many, there is an acknowledgment that the electorate can decide which elite rules. Elite who wins an election is believed to reflect, most closely, the values, policies and philosophies of the majority of voters and through regular, competitive elections they are held to account. Nevertheless, this remains an incredibly weak form of democracy for an elite can only be removed by the interception of another, Vilfredo Pareto referred to this as 'a circulation of elites'. |
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New Right Perspective
Theorists; Freedman and Hayek. The New Right believe the political system is in danger of a democratic overload due to pressure placed on those in power by groups and the electorate. If these groups are well placed their influence can force government intervention in the free market causing economic problems. In addition, due to the competitive nature of elections, politicians attain votes through unrealistic proposals which if pursued will lead to high inflation due to public spending and high taxes, stunting economic growth and placing a burden upon businesses. |
Pro's of Democracy -
- The governing power is accountable to the people -The majority of governments would rather rule through consent than cohesion, consequently, the interests of the people is in mind when making decisions - Democracy encourages development within citizens - Citizens have a moral right to participation and many would go as far to say they also have a moral obligation to - Democracy encourages social change, reform, progress and an addressor of public grievances. Cons of Democracy - - The government should comprise of educated elite who have the necessary means to act within the interest of the country - Majority rule within an uneducated elite is unwise - By focusing upon political equality, social and economic inequality, according to Marxists, need not be addressed - Democracy is patriarchal according to many feminists. |
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Continuation of Participatory and Representative
Although there were critics of representative democracy it did have advocates, as not only of facilitating popular sovereignty in large-scale settings but also of placing a filter between the masses and prudent or “good” government. This was emphasized who proclaimed "your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays instead of serving you if he sacrifices it to your opinion". If power is dangerous, popular power is more dangerous because it has a righteous legitimacy. Indirect rule thus becomes a check on popular power consistent with the rule of law and constitutional limits on absolute power, especially when that power is popular. It is here that participatory democracy can be associated closely with deliberative democracy. To act as a citizen is not merely to voice private interests; it is to interact and deliberate with others in search of common ground and public goods. The aim of participation is not merely to express interests but to foster deliberation and public-mindedness about interests. When Jefferson suggested that the remedy for the ills of democracy was more democracy, he intimated that democracy was deliberative and involved learning. The advances in technologies may help create conditions conducive to direct democracy, affording large-scale societies some of the democratic possibilities of small-scale townships. If democracy depends on association and communication, digital technologies that facilitate them become obvious tools of democracy. |
Democracy passes into despotism.
Plato Democracy is when the indigent, and not the men of property, are the rulers. Aristotle In a democracy, the majority of the citizens is capable of exercising the most cruel oppressions upon the minority. Edmund Burke A pure democracy is a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person. James Madison The difference between a democracy and a dictatorship is that in a democracy you vote first and take orders later; in a dictatorship you don't have to waste your time voting. Charles Bukowski Democracy is the process by which people choose the man who'll get the blame. Bertrand Russell |
