Chapter 23

Decolonization was vastly important in the second half of the twentieth century. 1. the newly independent states experimented politically, economically, and culturally 2. these states were labeled as the third world during the cold war a. now are often called developing countries or the Global South b. they include a large majority of the world’s population c. suffer from enormous challenges
Explaining African and Asian Independence 1. few people would have predicted imperial collapse in 1900 2. several explanations for decolonization have emerged: a. emphasis on the fundamental contradictions in the colonial enterprise b. historians use the idea of “conjuncture” to explain timing of decolonization c. some scholars emphasize the role of specific groups and individuals—the issue of “agency”

1885: establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) a. almost exclusively an association of English-educated, high-caste Hindus b. made moderate demands; at first asked for a greater role in the life of British India c. British mocked them and rejected their claim to speak for all Indians d. the INC only began to gain a wide following after World War I

Mahatma Gandhi became one of the pivotal figures, if not the main figure, in India's history in the Twentieth Century. Along with Jinnah and Nehru, Gandhi shaped India's history up to its independence in 1947. Gandhi encouraged Indians to boycott British goods and buy Indian goods instead. This helped to revitalise local economies in India and it also hit home at the British by undermining their economy in the country. Gandhi preached passive resistance, believing that acts of violence against the British only provoked a negative reaction whereas passive resistance provoked the British into doing something which invariably pushed more people into supporting the Indian National Congress movement.

The role of Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) a. had studied law in England but wasn’t a very successful lawyer b. in 1893, took a job in South Africa , where he joined the fight against racial segregation c. developed the political philosophy of satyagraha (truth force), a nonviolent approach to political action d. back in India , Gandhi became a leader of the INC e. attacked not just colonial rule but also mistreatment of India ’s untouchables and the evils of modernization

Not everyone agreed with Gandhi a. especially important was a growing Muslim/Hindu divide b. 1906: creation of an All-India Muslim League c. some Hindu politicians defined the nationalist struggle in religious terms d. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, head of the Muslim League, argued that regions of India with a Muslim majority should be a separate state ( Pakistan , the land of the pure)

not everyone agreed with Gandhi a. especially important was a growing Muslim/Hindu divide b. 1906: creation of an All-India Muslim League c. some Hindu politicians defined the nationalist struggle in religious terms d. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, head of the Muslim League, argued that regions of India with a Muslim majority should be a separate state ( Pakistan , the land of the pure

African National Congress (ANC) founded in 1912 a. like India ’s INC, it consisted of elite Africans who wanted a voice in society b. for 40 years, the ANC was peaceful and moderate c. 1950s: moved to nonviolent civil disobedience d. the government’s response was overwhelming repression e. ANC was banned and its leadership imprisoned

Nelson Mandela of South Africa spent 27 years in prison for treason, sabotage, and conspiracy; in 1994, he became South Africa ’s first black president.

The Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) was a grassroots anti-Apartheid activist movement that emerged in South Africa in the mid-1960s out of the political vacuum created by the jailing and banning of the African National Congress and Pan Africanist Congress leadership after the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960.^[1] The BCM represented a social movement for political consciousness.

Underground nationalist leaders turned to sabotage and assassination a. opposition came to focus on student groups b. Soweto uprising (1976) was the start of spreading violence c. organization of strikes

various arguments as to why Africans initially rejected democracy a. some argue that the Africans were not ready for democracy or lacked some necessary element b. some argue that African traditional culture (communal, based on consensus) was not compatible with party politics c. some argue that Western-style democracy was inadequate to the task of development 5. widespread economic disappointment discredited early African democracies a. African economic performance since independence has been poor b. widespread economic hardship c. modern governments staked their popularity on economic success

Experiments in Economic Development: Changing Priorities, Varying Outcomes 1. the belief that poverty isn’t inevitable won out a. however, in many states, colonial rule had not provided much infrastructure for modern development b. most developing countries didn’t have leverage in negotiation with wealthy nations and corporations c. African leaders got contradictory advice on how to develop successfully 2. general expectation in the developing world that the state would spur economic development a. most private economies were weakly developed b. Chinese and Soviet industrialization provided models c. but for several decades, there has been growing dependence on market forces for economic development 3. urban vs. rural development has been an important issue a. in some areas, the “urban bias” has been partly corrected b. women’s access to employment, education, and birth control provided incentives to limit family size 4. debate over whether foreign aid, investment, and trade are good or bad 5. the degree of economic development has varied widely by region a. East Asia has been the most successful b. 1990s: India opened itself more fully to the world market c. several Latin American states developed industrially d. most of Africa, much of the Arab world, and parts of Asia didn’t catch up, and standards of living often declined e. there is no general agreement about why such great variations developed

His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state. The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to asKemalism.

Iran : became the center of Islamic revival (1970s) a. growing opposition to Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi’s modernizing, secularizing, U.S.-supported government b. many of the shah’s reforms offended traditional Islamic practices c. the mosque became the main center of opposition to the government d. the shah was forced to abdicate in 1979, and the Ayatollah Khomeini assumed control of the state e. the Islamic revolution moved Iran towards Islamization of public life