Chapter 22, Enlightenment and Revolution

He published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama. He often used satire against his opponents. He made frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government. He was sent to prison twice. After his second jail term, he was exiled to England for more than two years. Voltaire made powerful enemies, but he never stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech.

Wrote The Leviathan in 1651. He believed that: -people in a natural state were "bruttish" -people gave up a protion of their power and rights and entered into a contract to be governed -once they entered the contract, the could not rebel this supported the theory of an absolute monarch

She ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. She ruled with absolute authority but also sought to reform Russia. The was an uprising of serfs in 1773 and her army brutally crushed the rebellion. She gave the nobles absolute power over the serfs. Catherine expanded her empire westward into Poland. Russia, Prussia, and Austria each took a piece of Poland in what is called the First Partition of Poland. By the end of her remarkable reign, Catherine has vastly enlarged the Russian empire.

He contributed heavily to Jefferson's thought in the Declaration of Independence. He believed: -people are reasonable and will cooperate with eachother -rulers are to remain in power only as long as they have the consent of the governed -people had natural rights -- Life, Liberty, and Property -government is responsible for protecting natural rights, but power should limited

-Believed that man was good but society corrupted men -"Noble savage" idea--could not return to this natural state -Social contract made with other citizens: belief in equality--no titles -people give up some of their freedom in favor of the "general will"

He admired the English government system. His ideas were read and adopted by America's founding fathers Seperation of Powers: -Legislative -Executive -Judicial -Systems of Checks and Balances

He was a Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist. In the 1670s, he used a microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time.

He was a Dutch maker of eyeglasses that invented the first microscope in 1590.

He was a Polish cleric and astronomer. In the early 1500s, he became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, he reasoned that indeed, the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun. This was known as the heliocentric, or sun-centered, theory. He did not publish his findings until 1543, the last year of his life.

He carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years. He produced a lot of accurate data based on his observations.

He was a brilliant mathematician and Tycho Brahe's assistant. After studying Brahe's data, he concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. Kepler's laws showed that Copernicus's basic ideas about the planets revolving the sun were true.

He was Italian. He built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609. He published a book in 1610 called Starry Messenger that described his observations. He discovered that Jupiter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that the earth's moon had a rough, uneven surface. His findings frightened both Catholic and Protestant leaders because they went against church teaching and authority. In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. He continued his studies and in 1632, he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. The book presented that he supported the Copernican theory. The pope summoned him to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition. He stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he knelt before the cardinals and read a signed confession. In it, he agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false. He lived under house arrest and died in 1642 at his villa near Florence. (In 1992, the Catholic Church officially acknowledged that Galileo had been right.)

He was an English statesman and writer. He believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate pracitcal knowledge that would improve people's lives. Instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. This approach is called empiricism, or the experimental method. Modern scientific methods are bassed and his ideas.

He was French. He developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. Rather than using experimentation, he relied on mathematics and logic. He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason. Modern scientific methods are bassed and his ideas.

He was English. He studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time he was 26, he was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces. According to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. In 1687, he published his ideas in a work called The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. He described the universe as a giant clock.