Anatomy and Physiology Final Exam

Homeostasis is the property of a system, either open or closed, that regulates its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition
for example when u jump in cold water your body will soon remain homeostasis and u will get used to this cold water and you will not even feel it

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1)The integumentary system supports and protects, regulates body temperature, makes chemicals and hormones, and acts as a sense organ.
2)The skeletal system supports and protects, makes movement easier (with joints), stores minerals, and makes blood cells.
3)The muscular system brings about body movement, maintains posture, and produces heat.
4)The nervous system allows a person to communicate with the environment and integrates and controls the body.
5)The endocrine system secretes hormones into the blood that serve to communicate with, integrate, and control mechanisms.
6)The circulatory system transports substances through the body and establishes immunity.
7)The lymphatic system is a subdivision of the circulatory system. It does not contain blood, but rather lymph, which is formed from the fluid surrounding body cells and diffused into lymph vessels. The major functions of the lymphatic system are the movement of fluid and its critical role in the defense mechanism of the body against disease.
8)The respiratory system exchanges oxygen from the air for the waste product carbon dioxide, which is eliminated from the body.
9)The digestive system breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and excretes solid waste.
10)The urinary system cleans waste products from blood in the form of urine and maintains electrolyte balance, water balance, and acid-base balance.
11)The reproductive system produces sex cells, allows transfer of sex cells and fertilization to occur, permits development and birth of offspring, nourishes offspring, and produces sex hormones.

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most simply dorsal = back side and ventral = or front side. This may vary depending on the morphology of the specific species you're looking at (i.e. back and front could mean top and bottom). An easy way to determine the dorsal side is asking yourself what side is closest to the spine, or the notochord etc. if not a vertebrate. In contrast, coming from the Latin word "venter" meaning belly; the ventral side contains the abdomen or digestive tract.

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1. Fibrosis is the replacement of cells and Regeneration is where it involves repair of the skin by forming a sar tissues

Our skin is a complex engineered covering. The skin has a slightly acidic coating of oil at the surface. This coating protects the skin against some bacteria. Below the surface is a complex of sweat and oil glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, nerves, and muscle tissue. These are held together by a tough connective tissue called collagen. Collagen is very important in determining the health of the skin. The relative health of the collagen determines the contour of the skin, how wrinkled and lined it is. Healthy collagen is often called soluble collagen, because it can absorb and hold moisture. The skin has three layers. The inner most layer is known as the lower dermis, the middle layer is called the dermis, and the outer layer is known as the epidermis. Lower Dermis The various glands such as the oil and sweat glands originate in the lower dermis. From here, they rise to the surface of the skin to eliminate waste matter. Lower dermis also acts as a cushion for the rest of the skin. It contains the finely distributed muscles of the skin which regulate body temperature. Dermis The dermis is the layer that lies underneath the epidermis, and it is composed entirely of living cells. It consists of bundles of tough fibers which give your skin its elasticity, firmness and strength. There are also blood vessels, which feed vital nutrients to these areas. The most important function of dermis is respiration. The countless tiny blood vessels, or capillaries end here in finely-drawn networks, from where they feed the outer skin layer. Dermis also determines the tone of the skin. Epidermis This is the top layer of skin and the one you can actually see. It protects your body from invasion and infection and helps to seal in moisture. It's built up of several layers of living cells which are then topped by sheets of dead cells. It's constantly growing, with new cells being produced at its base. They quickly die, and are pushed up to the surface by the arrival of new ones, These dead cells eventually flake away, which means that every new layer of skin is another chance to have a soft, glowing complexion. The lower levels of living cells are fed by the blood supply from underneath, whereas the upper dead cells only need water to ensure they're kept plump and smooth. The epidermis is responsible for your coloring, as it holds the skin's pigment. It ranges in thickness from l/20-th of an inch on the palms and soles, to 1/200-th of an inch on the face.

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Melanin, Carotene, and hemoglobin are the three pigments that impart a wide variety of colors to skin.


The amount of melanin causes the skin's color to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to black.


The red color is due to hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying pigment in red blood cells.


Carotene is a yellow-orange pigment that gives egg yolk and carrots their color. this precursor of vitamin a which is used to synthesize pigments needed for vision, accumulates in the stratum corneum and fatty ares of the dermis and subcutaneous layer in response to excessive dietary intake.

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Please wait... First degree burns are the least serious. They are basically like a mild sunburn. Second degree burns are worse, and blisters will be raised, but permanent damage is unlikely. Third degree burns are the worst. The skin is charred. Scarring is certain, and infection is likely. Third degree burns are also the most likely to be fatal.

1. support
2. protection
3. Assisting in Movement
4. Storage of Minerals
5. Production of Blood Cells
6. Storage of Chemical Energy

The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility

CARDIAC MUSCLE: The cardiac muscles is the muscle of the heart itself. The cardiac muscle is the tissue that makes up the wall of the heart called the mydocardium. Also like the skeletal muscles, the cardiac muscle is striated and contracts through the sliding filament method. However it is different from other types of muscles because it forms branching fibers. Unlike the skeletal muscles, the cardiac muscle is attached together instead of been attach to a bone. SKELETAL MUSCLE: The skeletal muscle makes up about 40 % of an adults body weight. It has stripe-like markings, or striations. The skeletal muscles is composed of long muscle fibers. Each of these muscles fiber is a cell which contains several nuclei. The nervous system controls the contraction of the muscle. Many of the skeletal muscle contractions are automatic. However we still can control the action of the skeletal muscle. And it is because of this reason that the skeletal muscle is also called voluntary muscle. SMOOTH MUSCLE: Much of our internal organs is made up of smooth muscles. They are found in the urinary bladder, gallbladder, arteries, and veins. Also the digestive tract is made up of smooth muscle as well. The smooth muscles are controlled by the nervous system and hormones. We cannot consciously control the smooth muscle that is why they are often called involuntary muscles.

The sliding filament theory is the explanation for how muscles produce force (or, usually, shorten). It explains that the thick and thin filaments within the sarcomere slide past one another, shortening the entire length of the sarcomere. In order to slide past one another, the myosin heads will interact with the actin filaments and, using ATP, bend to pull past the actin.

Myosin hydolyzes ATP and undergoes a conformational change into a high-energy state. The head group of myosin binds to actin forming a cross-bridge between the thick and thin filaments. The energy stored by myosin is released, and ADP and inorganic phosphate dissociate from myosin. The resulting relaxation of the myosin molecule entails rotation of the globular head, which induces longitudinal sliding of the filaments.

Origin- The anatomical origin is a concept used when describing muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, and blood and lymph vessels. Insertion- Insertion is the point at which a muscle attaches to a bone Tendon- A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Ligament- ligament is used to denote any of three types of structures

The central nervous system of vertebrates (such as humans) contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina. The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and nerves connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system.

The fight-or-flight response (also called the fight-or-flight-or-freeze response, hyperarousal, or the acute stress response) was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon.His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, priming the animal for fighting or fleeing. This response was later recognized as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.